Introduction

The late eighteenth century was a time of significant social and political upheaval in France. This period laid the groundwork for the French Revolution, which fundamentally transformed French society and governance.

1. Structure of French Society

French society was divided into three distinct estates:

• First Estate: Composed of the clergy, this estate was privileged and owned about 10% of the land. They were exempt from many taxes and collected tithes from the population.
• Second Estate: The nobility constituted this estate, which also held significant privileges, including exemption from taxes and special rights. They owned approximately 25% of the land and held important positions in government and military.
• Third Estate: This estate included the common people, which were further divided into various groups such as the bourgeoisie (middle class), workers, and peasants. The Third Estate bore the brunt of taxation and had little political power, despite making up the majority of the population.

2. The Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie emerged as a powerful class within the Third Estate. They were educated and wealthy, often engaging in trade, commerce, and professional occupations. The bourgeoisie's dissatisfaction with their lack of political rights and privileges led to growing tensions with the nobility and the monarchy.

3. Life in the Cities and Countryside

Life in France varied significantly between urban and rural areas:

• Cities: Urban areas were marked by growing populations and the rise of a consumer culture. The bourgeoisie began to demand more rights and representation, which contributed to revolutionary ideas.
• Countryside: Peasants faced harsh living conditions, with high rents, taxes, and feudal obligations. Many were discontented and burdened by poverty, which fueled revolutionary sentiments.

4. Economic Conditions

The late eighteenth century was characterized by economic difficulties:

• Financial Crisis: France faced a severe financial crisis due to costly wars, including the American War of Independence. The government's debt led to increased taxes, primarily affecting the Third Estate.
• Food Shortages: Poor harvests in the late 1780s caused food shortages, leading to rising bread prices and hunger among the common people. This unrest was a catalyst for the revolution.

5. Enlightenment Ideas

The Enlightenment played a crucial role in shaping revolutionary thought. Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu challenged traditional authority and emphasized reason, individual rights, and the social contract. These ideas inspired the Third Estate to seek political and social reform.

6. The Role of Women

Women played a significant role in the French Revolution, advocating for their rights and participation in society. Figures like Olympe de Gouges wrote about gender equality and women's rights, emphasizing the need for social change.

7. The Crisis of Monarchy

The monarchy's inability to address the grievances of the people and the financial crisis led to a loss of confidence in King Louis XVI. His attempts at reform were seen as inadequate, contributing to the rising revolutionary fervor among the populace.